The ancient Greek city of Pergamon in Anatolia flourished and enjoyed a long period of glory, forging a successful alliance with Rome in the Hellenistic Period.

Εstablished in the 3rd century BC, Pergamon became known for its cultural and political significance. The kingdom played a critical role in the Hellenistic world, especially during the time of Attalus III, who left it to the Roman Republic in his will in 133 BC.

This marked a significant shift in power dynamics in the region. It became the capital of the Roman province of Asia for the next two centuries, until the reign of Emperor Constantine the Great and the birth of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire.

History of Pergamon

Archaeological finds around Pergamon date back to the Stone Age and Bronze Age, including the time of the Hittites , conquerors of most of Anatolia around 1400 BC. After the collapse of the Hittite empire around 1180 BC, Thracian and Mycenaean Greek tribes moved through or settled in the area.

The part of Anatolia which included Troy became known as Mysia. Ancient writers refer to the area of Mysia around Pergamon as Teuthrania, which was possibly also the name of a town, named after the mythical king Teuthras.

Alexander the Great is said to have studied Xenophon’s “Anabasis” to prepare himself before embarking to Anatolia on his campaign against the Persian king Darius III. In 334 BC the great general defeated Darius on the River Granicus. As he marched through Anatolia, Pergamon surrendered to him, and he appointed Barsine, the widow of the Persian commander, as administrator.

Following Alexander the Great’s sudden death in Babylon in 323 BC, his generals and relations (the Diadochi, successors) started to fight between them over control of parts of his empire. In 301 BC Lysimachus , king of Thrace, took control of western Anatolia (Lydia, Ionia and Phrygia), including Pergamon.

With the great riches he had accumulated as the spoils of war, Lysimachus began rebuilding ancient cities such as Ephesus, and several new cities appeared in Anatolia. He appointed Philetaerus as treasurer. Yet, Lysimachus was very unpopular and his days were numbered, so Philetaerus offered the city fortress and its treasures to Seleucus I Nikator.

Seleucus was the ruler of much of Alexander’s empire in Asia and founder of the Seleucid dynasty . Seleucus defeated and killed Lysimachus and claimed the promised riches of Pergamon in order to finance the expansion of his empire into Europe. Soon after, though, Seleucus was murdered and the Pergamon riches remained in the hands of Philetaerus.

Philetaerus and the Attalid dynasty

Philetaerus managed to hold onto Pergamon’s wealth and use it to solidify his power and influence. He found the Attalid dynasty, named after his father Attalos, in 281 BC. The Attalid dynasty ruled Pergamon until 133 BC. All the Attalid rulers, except Eumenes II, depicted his head on their coins in honor of the dynastic founder.

On the Pergamon acropolis, Philetaerus built the temple of Demeter, the temple of Athena – (patron of the city) and the first palace, and improved the city’s fortifications. He donated funds to other cities and religious centers, including Delphi and Delos, thus strengthening diplomatic ties.

Philetaerus also contributed troops, money and provisions to fight the Gauls who had invaded the Balkans and Anatolia, and in 278 BC settled in the area of central Anatolia which was to become known as Galatia. According to Pausanias the Gauls were fearless warriors and began demanding protection money, which the Greek cities were forced to pay.

Philetaerus was succeeded by Eumenes I, his nephew and adopted son, who revolted against the Seleucid king Antiochus I and defeated him near Sardis in 261 BC. He managed to keep control of the newly independent Pergamon, and maintain peace with the Seleucids and the Gauls. Eumenes also continued the building work on the Pergamon Acropolis his uncle had begun and encouraged the arts, philosophy and sports.

Eumenes died childless and was succeeded by his second cousin and adopted son Attalus.

Attalus I Soter

Attalus I became known as Soter and was the first Attalid to take the title king in 238 BC. One of his first decrees banned the payment of tributes to the Galatians. They attacked Pergamon, causing severe losses to the Attalus’ forces. However, the next year he defeated both, the Galatians and their Seleucid allies and by 227 BC he had totally destroyed the Gallic threat.

His victories made him a popular hero throughout the Greek world, and he set up victory monuments consisting of bronze statues and statue groups at several places, including Delos, Delphi the Sanctuary of Athena Nikephoros on Pergamon’s acropolis and next to the Parthenon on the Athens Acropolis.

Ancient Greek geographer and traveler Pausanias wrote that the Delphians claimed that their oracle had prophesied the invasion of the Galatians and their defeat by Attalus. For this victory, Attalus built a triumphal monument at Pergamon, famous for its Dying Gaul, and the liberation from the Gallic “terror” which it represented.

Attalus also began the building of the Pergamon Library, which was to become the second most important in the ancient world after the Library of Alexandria in Egypt.

Seeing that Rome had become the dominant power in the Mediterranean and was taking over Greek territories in Europe, Attalus turned his attention to Greece and allied with Rome. At the time, many Greek states, including Athens, welcomed the interventions by the Pergamon and the Romans against Philip V of Macedon in the first and second Macedonian Wars.

During these wars Attalus gained the Aegean islands of Andros, Euboea and Aegina which he made his base of operations. In 201 BC Philip V invaded Pergamon, but due to Attalus’ new fortifications he was unable to take the city and only satisfied himself by destroying temples and altars outside the walls.

In 200 BC, Attalus was given a hero’s welcome in Athens and an Athenian tribe was named Attalis in his honor.

Reign of Eumenes

When Attalus died in 197 BC, his eldest son and successor Eumenes II continued his father’s policies, and as an ally of Rome he continued to oppose Macedonia and the Seleucids under Antiochus III the Great.

Along with Roman general Lucius Cornelius Scipio he defeated Antiochus at the Battle of Magnesia, and gained the regions of Phrygia, Lydia, Pisidia, Pamphylia and parts of Lycia.

Eumenes fostered the Attalids’ good relations with Greece, particularly Athens, where a colossal statue of him and his brother Attalus (later Attalus II) commemorated their victory in a chariot race during the Panathenaic Games in 178 BC, one of several they won.

Eumenes built the Stoa of Eumenes beneath the north side of the Athens Acropolis, between the Theater of Dionysus and the site was later occupied by the Odeon of Herodes Atticus.

In Pergamon, Eumenes built the Altar of Zeus and undertook extensive renovations of the theater. As a book collector, he also expanded the Pergamon Library. There is a legend that parchment (also known as pergament and charta pergamena, made from animal skins) was invented here.

According to Roman author Pliny the Elder, the Egyptian king Ptolemy V Epiphanes was so envious of Pergamon’s growing library, which was competing with his own at Alexandria, that he banned the export of papyrus.

The Pergamenes are said to have devised parchment to meet their needs of papyrus. It is probable that the production of parchment was refined at Pergamon. Since parchment could not be rolled up like papyrus, the development of sheets of treated skins sewn together as a codex led to the form of modern books.

Plutarch wrote that in the 1st century BC, Mark Antony was accused by Calvisius, one of his enemies in Rome, of taking the Pergamon library’s 200,000 volumes as a gift for Cleopatra.

In Eumenes’ last years he apparently suffered ill health, and Attalus II co-ruled with him from 160 BC.

Attalus II Philadelphus, Attalus III Philometor

Before sitting on the Pergamon throne, Attalus II had already proved himself an able military commander and diplomat, having made several diplomatic visits to Rome and pushing back attacks by the Seleucids and Pharnaces I of Pontus. He had also fought alongside the Romans in Galatia and Greece during the Third Macedonian War .

With the support of the Romans he helped the pretender Alexander Balas depose the Seleucid king Demetrius I in 150 BC, and Nicomedes II Epiphanes to overthrow his father, the Bithynian king Prusias II in 149 BC. He thus made allies of two of Pergamon’s powerful local enemies.

With the help of King Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia, Attalus expanded his territories and found the cities of Philadelphia and Attalia. By this time Pergamon had become the largest and most powerful kingdom in Anatolia.

Like his predecessors, Attalus encouraged the arts in Pergamon and abroad. He also financed the building of the Stoa of Attalus in the Athens Agora .

Upon his death, he was succeeded by his nephew Attalus III Philometor, the son of king Eumenes II and his queen Stratonike. He was so-called because of his close relationship with his mother.

According to Livy, Attalus III had little interest in ruling Pergamon. He was typically the king from 138 until his death into 133 BC, devoting his time to studying medicine, botany and gardening. He had no male children or heirs of his own, and in his will he left his kingdom to the Roman Republic.

He did so in the belief that Rome would take the kingdom anyway and this way would avoid bloodshed. Tiberius Gracchus requested that the treasury of Pergamon be opened up to the Roman public, but the Senate refused this.

However, not all Pergamenes accepted Rome’s rule. In 131 BC Aristonicus, who claimed to be Attalus’ brother as well as the son of Eumenes II, led a popular uprising with the help of the Roman philosopher Blossius. He ruled as Eumenes III. The Romans put the revolt down in 29 BC, and Pergamon was divided among Rome, Pontus, and Cappadocia.